Pancreatitis in Dogs and Cats: Complete Guide for Pet Owners

Introduction

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas, and in dogs and cats it can become painful, dehydrating, and potentially life-threatening without prompt veterinary care. It may appear suddenly as acute pancreatitis or develop over time as chronic pancreatitis, with flare-ups that come and go. Understanding pancreatitis in dogs and cats is crucial for effective treatment.

Understanding pancreatitis in dogs and cats is essential for ensuring the health and well-being of your pets. Early intervention in cases of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can lead to better outcomes.

Many pet owners may not realize that pancreatitis in dogs and cats can often present with vague symptoms that require careful observation.

For many pet owners, understanding the nuances of pancreatitis in dogs and cats is crucial to providing the best care possible.

This guide is for pet owners in Central Florida who want to understand pancreatitis in dogs and cats, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment options, prevention, and long-term management. At Bushnell Animal Clinic, we often help families sort through confusing signs like vomiting, appetite loss, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and lethargy so pets can receive the right pancreatitis treatment as early as possible.

The direct answer: pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that can be acute or chronic, and suspected cases should be evaluated by a veterinarian quickly-especially when vomiting, severe pain, dehydration, collapse, or breathing changes are present.

By the end of this guide, you will know how to:

• Recognize symptoms of pancreatitis early in dogs and cats
• Understand common risk factors, including diet, breed, medications, and underlying disease
• Know when emergency treatment is needed
• Compare outpatient care, hospitalization, and chronic pancreatitis treatment
• Prevent pancreatitis flare-ups through diet, monitoring, and household routines

Understanding Pancreatitis in Pets

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas, a small but important organ in the digestive system. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and pancreatic juices that help break down food in the small intestine. The pancreas also contains insulin producing cells that help regulate blood sugar by producing hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

In a healthy pet, pancreatic enzymes are released in an inactive form and become active only after reaching the small intestine. When pancreatitis develops, those digestive enzymes may activate too early inside the pancreas. This can irritate and damage pancreatic tissue, causing swelling, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, dehydration, and serious complications in severe cases.

Understanding pancreatic function matters because pancreatitis can affect more than digestion. Pancreatitis can cause blood sugar problems, diabetes mellitus, malabsorption, weight loss, chronic pain, oily stools, and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency if enough pancreatic tissue is damaged.

Acute Pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is sudden inflammation of the pancreas. It can range from a mild episode with appetite loss and nausea to severe acute pancreatitis with shock, organ dysfunction, respiratory distress, or life-threatening complications.

Dogs with acute pancreatitis often show vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and dehydration. Cats may be more subtle, showing decreased appetite, hiding, weight loss, or low energy rather than obvious pain. Acute pancreatitis treatment usually focuses on stabilizing the pet, correcting dehydration, providing pain relief, controlling nausea, and giving nutritional support once the pet can tolerate food.

Recognizing the signs of pancreatitis in dogs and cats is essential for pet owners to ensure their pets receive timely care.

Recognizing the signs of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can make a significant difference in timely treatment.

Awareness of pancreatitis in dogs and cats includes understanding its potential severity and the need for immediate veterinary attention.

It is important for every pet owner to learn about pancreatitis in dogs and cats, especially given its potentially serious implications.

Immediate treatment is important because pancreatitis may worsen quickly. Intravenous hydration is a critical component in the initial treatment of pancreatitis due to the risk of severe dehydration.

The signs of pancreatitis in dogs and cats include a range of symptoms that can vary significantly between individuals.

Chronic pancreatitis in dogs and cats can lead to long-term health issues if not managed properly.

Understanding how pancreatitis in dogs and cats differs from acute cases can help pet owners navigate treatment options.

Pets with chronic pancreatitis in dogs and cats might require ongoing dietary management to ensure their health.

Identifying the root cause of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can be complex and requires thorough veterinary evaluation.

Many pets may silently suffer from pancreatitis in dogs and cats, making vigilance from owners even more critical.

Understanding your dog’s or cat’s risk factors for pancreatitis in dogs and cats can help in prevention.

Chronic Pancreatitis

Recognizing that pancreatitis in dogs and cats often stems from dietary indiscretions is a crucial part of prevention.

Many owners might not be aware that pancreatitis in dogs and cats can be triggered by certain medications.

Bringing awareness to pancreatitis in dogs and cats can empower owners to seek timely veterinary assistance.

Chronic pancreatitis is long-term pancreatic inflammation that can cause progressive scarring, tissue loss, and repeated flare-ups. Chronic pancreatitis can develop from repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis, leading to ongoing inflammation and damage to the pancreas over time.

Understanding the genetic factors that contribute to pancreatitis in dogs and cats can aid in proactive care.

Compared with acute pancreatitis, chronic pancreatitis may be harder to recognize. Signs can wax and wane: reduced appetite, intermittent vomiting, weight loss, loose stool, chronic pain, or a general decline in energy. In chronic pancreatitis, abdominal pain may vary in intensity, often worsening after eating, and may not completely resolve over time.

Awareness of how pancreatitis in dogs and cats can be influenced by environmental factors is essential for pet owners.

Advanced chronic inflammation can reduce pancreatic function. Patients with chronic pancreatitis may experience signs of exocrine dysfunction, such as steatorrhea, also called fatty or oily stools, malabsorption, and fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies when about 90% of pancreatic function is lost. In pets, this may appear as persistent diarrhea, weight loss, poor coat quality, and increased appetite with poor nutrient absorption.

Causes and Risk Factors

Identifying environmental triggers of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can help mitigate risks for your pets.

Pancreatitis develops when the pancreas becomes inflamed, but the cause of pancreatitis is not always obvious. In dogs, dietary indiscretion and high-fat meals are common triggers. In cats, idiopathic pancreatitis-meaning no clear cause is found-is common, and pancreatitis often appears alongside intestinal, liver, or bile duct disease.

Risk factors differ between dogs, cats, and people. Human pancreatitis is often linked to gallstone pancreatitis, alcohol consumption, hereditary pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, and high triglycerides. In pets, fatty foods, breed tendencies, metabolic disease, trauma, medications, and concurrent digestive and kidney diseases may all play a role.

Recognizing the symptoms of pancreatitis in dogs and cats early can improve treatment outcomes.

Timely diagnosis of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can save lives and reduce suffering.

Diagnostic testing plays a pivotal role in addressing pancreatitis in dogs and cats effectively.

Veterinary care for pancreatitis in dogs and cats includes a comprehensive approach to ensure the best treatment.

Dietary Causes

High-fat foods and table scraps are major pancreatitis triggers in dogs. Bacon, fried foods, fatty meat trimmings, butter, creamy sauces, rich holiday leftovers, and greasy treats can overwhelm the pancreas and increase digestive enzyme stimulation. A single high-fat meal can trigger acute pancreatitis in a predisposed dog.

Holiday foods create extra risk because they often combine fat with other hazards. Onions, garlic, chocolate, alcohol-containing desserts, and heavily seasoned foods can cause additional toxicity beyond pancreatitis risk. Pets should not be given alcohol, and human medical advice for pancreatitis patients also emphasizes that immediate lifestyle changes, such as abstaining from alcohol and smoking, are necessary to prevent tissue damage in pancreatitis patients.

A low fat diet is central for many dogs recovering from pancreatitis. For dogs prone to relapse, veterinary therapeutic diets are often safer than estimating fat content at home. Cats may not have the same strong fat-trigger connection as dogs, but highly rich foods can still worsen nausea or digestive upset.

Medical and Genetic Factors

Some dog breeds have an increased risk of pancreatitis, including Yorkshire Terriers, Miniature Schnauzers, Cocker Spaniels, Dachshunds, Poodles, and other breeds prone to abnormal fat metabolism. Miniature Schnauzers are especially known for hyperlipidemia. In dogs, high triglycerides may increase pancreatitis risk; in human medicine, high triglycerides are defined as fat levels in the blood exceeding 1,000 mg/dL and can trigger pancreatitis.

Underlying disease can also increase risk. Diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s disease, hypothyroidism, hypercalcemia, liver disease, bile ducts disease, intestinal inflammation, and some kidney diseases may complicate pancreatitis diagnosis and recovery. Blood tests help identify these overlapping problems.

Effective treatment of pancreatitis in dogs and cats requires a tailored approach based on individual needs.

Addressing pancreatitis in dogs and cats promptly can prevent more serious health complications.

Emergency care for pancreatitis in dogs and cats may be necessary in severe cases.

Outpatient management of pancreatitis in dogs and cats includes careful monitoring and dietary adjustments.

Genetic factors, such as inherited conditions, can predispose individuals to pancreatitis. In people, genetic factors such as hereditary pancreatitis and conditions like cystic fibrosis are significant causes of pancreatitis, particularly in children. In pets, inherited disorders are less clearly mapped, but breed predispositions strongly suggest a genetic component in some dogs.

Gallstones are a leading cause of pancreatitis in people, accounting for a significant percentage of cases, as gallstones can block the pancreatic duct and lead to inflammation. If gallstones cause pancreatitis, an endoscopic procedure called endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, or ERCP, may be employed along with gallbladder removal to prevent further attacks. These human procedures are different from routine pet pancreatitis care, but they help explain why the bile and pancreatic ducts matter when veterinarians evaluate liver and abdominal imaging.

Environmental and Medication Triggers

Trauma, surgery, anesthesia-related low blood flow, severe illness, and physiologic stress may contribute to pancreatitis in dogs and cats. Certain medications, including immunosuppressants, can trigger pancreatitis, although drug-related cases can be difficult to prove.

In veterinary patients, medications that have been associated with pancreatitis include some seizure medications, chemotherapy agents, diuretics, hormones, and immune-suppressing drugs. These medications are sometimes medically necessary, so pet owners should never stop them without veterinary guidance.

Human pancreatitis data also show that heavy alcohol use is a major risk factor for pancreatitis, contributing to approximately 50% of acute and chronic cases, although the exact mechanism is not fully understood. Drinking alcohol is not a typical pet cause unless a pet ingests alcohol, but alcohol exposure should always be treated as a toxic risk.

Recognizing Symptoms and Getting Diagnosed

Long-term management of pancreatitis in dogs and cats can include specific dietary guidelines and regular vet visits.

Common challenges faced with pancreatitis in dogs and cats can often be addressed with the right strategies.

Early recognition matters because pancreatitis can become more dangerous as dehydration, electrolyte changes, pain, and inflammation progress. The sooner pancreatitis is diagnosed, the sooner a veterinarian can treat pancreatitis with fluids, pain management, anti-nausea medication, nutritional support, and monitoring.

At Bushnell Animal Clinic, we use a combination of physical examination, blood tests, imaging tests, and clinical history to diagnose pancreatitis, similar to our broader approach to diagnostic and sick pet visits. No single test is perfect, especially in cats, so the full picture matters.

Warning Signs Every Pet Owner Should Know

Symptoms may appear after a fatty meal, table scraps, illness, medication change, trauma, or no obvious trigger at all. Vomiting and loss of appetite are common signs in dogs. Cats often show quieter signs such as hiding, reduced appetite, lethargy, or weight loss.

The primary symptom of pancreatitis is abdominal pain, which can be moderate to severe and may radiate to the back in people. Symptoms of pancreatitis include severe abdominal pain that may radiate to the back, nausea, vomiting, fever, and a rapid pulse. Pets cannot describe pain in the upper abdomen or back, so owners may notice restlessness, tense posture, trembling, reluctance to be picked up, or the “prayer position” in dogs, where the front legs stretch down while the rear stays raised.

Other warning signs include diarrhea, dehydration, fever, weakness, and difficulty breathing. Bloody diarrhea, collapse, pale gums, severe pain, or nonstop vomiting should be treated as an emergency.

Diagnostic Testing at Our Clinic

Bushnell Animal Clinic takes a comprehensive diagnostic approach because pancreatitis can mimic other digestive system problems. Conditions such as intestinal obstruction, liver disease, bile duct disease, kidney diseases, toxin ingestion, endocrine disease, and even some cancers may produce overlapping signs.

Test Type	What It Reveals	Timeline
Blood Chemistry Panel	Pancreatic enzyme levels and organ function	Same day results
Complete Blood Count	Infection indicators and overall health	Same day results
Abdominal X-rays	Organ positioning and potential complications	Immediate
Ultrasound	Detailed pancreas visualization	Same day when needed
Blood tests may include chemistry values, electrolytes, glucose, kidney values, liver enzymes, and pancreatic lipase testing, along with specialized options from the Texas A&M Gastrointestinal Laboratory when indicated. These tests help assess pancreatic enzymes, hydration status, blood sugar, and whether the pancreas, liver, kidneys, or intestines are involved.

Imaging tests can add important detail. X-rays help rule out other causes of vomiting and pain. Ultrasound can evaluate the pancreas, pancreatic duct region, bile ducts, fluid pockets, inflammation, and nearby organs. In human medicine, CT scan, endoscopic ultrasound, gastrointestinal endoscopy, pancreatic function tests, and ERCP may be used in selected cases; in pets, abdominal ultrasound and blood testing are more common first-line tools. In people, screening and diagnostic guidance may be informed by clinical trials and other research studies, while pet diagnosis depends on veterinary exam findings and standard testing.

Treatment Options and Management

Pancreatitis treatment depends on severity, hydration, pain level, vomiting, appetite, underlying disease, and whether the condition appears acute, chronic, or acute-on-chronic. At Bushnell Animal Clinic, care plans are individualized so pets receive compassionate treatment without unnecessary steps, supported by a full range of veterinary services for dogs and cats.

Treatment for pancreatitis aims to rest the pancreas, manage pain, and treat the underlying cause. In pets, this commonly means fluids, nausea control, pain relief, nutrition, and a low fat diet when appropriate.

Emergency and Hospitalization Care

Emergency treatment is needed when a pet has persistent vomiting, collapse, severe abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, dehydration, breathing difficulty, shock, or rapid worsening. Severe acute pancreatitis can cause serious complications, including low blood pressure, hypothermia, systemic inflammation, clotting problems, or organ dysfunction.

Hospital care often includes intravenous fluids to restore hydration, support circulation, and correct electrolyte abnormalities. Pain management is essential even when pets do not vocalize. Medications may be used to relieve pain, reduce pain-related stress, and improve comfort.

Anti-nausea medications, appetite support, and nutritional support are also important. Long fasting is no longer preferred for many patients; feeding is restarted as soon as it is safe and tolerated. Some dogs with acute pancreatitis may also be candidates for newer therapies such as fuzapladib sodium, depending on case details and veterinary judgment.

Outpatient Management

Preventing pancreatitis in dogs and cats is possible with the right knowledge and practices in place.

Engaging with a veterinary clinic for routine check-ups can help in managing pancreatitis in dogs and cats effectively.

Mild cases may be treated at home if the pet is stable, hydrated, able to keep medication down, and not showing severe pain. Outpatient pancreatitis treated at home may include anti-nausea medication, pain relief, appetite support, a prescription low fat diet, and careful monitoring.

Owners should follow feeding instructions closely. Small, frequent meals are often easier on the digestive system during recovery. Do not give table scraps, fatty treats, or unapproved supplements.

Return for emergency care if vomiting continues, appetite does not improve, pain worsens, diarrhea becomes bloody, weakness develops, or breathing changes occur. Follow-up blood tests may be recommended to monitor pancreatic enzymes, liver values, kidney values, electrolytes, and blood sugar.

Long-term Chronic Care

Treatment for chronic pancreatitis may include long-term diet management, weight control, enzyme supplements, medication for nausea or chronic pain, and regular monitoring. If exocrine pancreatic insufficiency develops, enzyme supplements help replace digestive enzymes that the pancreas can no longer produce effectively.

Chronic pancreatitis can lead to long-term issues like persistent diarrhea, malnutrition, and diabetes. In pets, managing related conditions such as diabetes mellitus is critical because damaged insulin producing cells may reduce the ability to produce insulin and regulate blood sugar.

In human medicine, treatment of chronic pancreatitis can be medical, endoscopic, or surgical, with the goals of improving pain, quality of life, and reducing morbidity and mortality from pancreatic dysfunction. Endoscopic procedures can treat symptomatic strictures, stones, and pseudocysts, with endoscopic drainage of pseudocysts showing similar rates of pain relief as surgery. Surgical options for chronic pancreatitis include decompression procedures for large duct disease and resection procedures for small duct disease, with the Whipple procedure being the most commonly performed surgery.

These human options-such as endoscopic procedures, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for selected stones, procedures to drain fluid, and surgery to remove gallstones or address a blocked pancreatic duct-are not routine treatments for most dogs and cats. However, they show why chronic pancreatitis treatment must be tailored to anatomy, severity, and complications.

Common Challenges and Solutions

Chronic conditions like pancreatitis in dogs and cats require ongoing veterinary support and intervention.

Addressing the long-term effects of pancreatitis in dogs and cats is crucial for maintaining their quality of life.

Pancreatitis is manageable, but families often need help with food changes, flare-ups, cost decisions, and household consistency. Bushnell Animal Clinic helps pet owners build realistic plans that protect the pancreas while fitting daily life.

Pet Won’t Eat Prescribed Diet

A gradual transition usually works best. Mix a small amount of the new prescription diet with the current food, then slowly increase the new food over several days if the pet is not vomiting.

For cats and picky dogs, warming food slightly, adding veterinarian-approved moisture, trying a different therapeutic formula, or adjusting texture may help. If your pet refuses food completely, call the clinic because poor intake can delay recovery and worsen weakness.

Recurring Episodes Despite Treatment

Recurring episodes often mean a hidden trigger remains. Common causes include fatty treats, table scraps, other pets’ food, trash access, unreported supplements, or family members “just giving a little.”

Strict dietary compliance matters most for dogs prone to acute and chronic pancreatitis. Regular blood tests, weight checks, and reassessment of medications or underlying conditions can help identify the reason for relapse.

Understanding the recovery process from pancreatitis in dogs and cats can help owners provide better care.

Managing Treatment Costs

Pancreatitis care can involve diagnostics, medications, fluids, prescription diets, and hospitalization. Bushnell Animal Clinic focuses on prioritizing essential treatments first: hydration, pain relief, nausea control, and identifying life-threatening complications, similar to the broader medical and surgical care highlighted in our veterinary blog and educational articles.

When costs are a concern, ask our team about staged diagnostics, payment options, and which recommendations are most urgent. Clear communication helps us protect your pet’s health while respecting your family’s budget.

Preventing Family Member “Slip-ups” with Treats

Everyone in the household needs the same rules. Post a list of approved foods, remove high-fat treats, and explain that “just one bite” can trigger severe pain, vomiting, dehydration, and emergency treatment.

Safe treat alternatives should match your veterinarian’s fat guidelines. For chronic cases, keep a written emergency plan with clinic contacts, after-hours instructions, current medications, and signs that require immediate care.

Prevention and Next Steps

Pancreatitis can be serious, but many pets do well with early treatment, careful diet, monitoring, and prevention. The most important steps are controlling fat intake, maintaining a healthy weight, treating underlying disease, and responding quickly when symptoms appear.

To help prevent pancreatitis and support overall wellness, many families partner with a trusted Bushnell veterinary clinic for compassionate pet care:

Dietary restrictions following pancreatitis in dogs and cats are often necessary to prevent future episodes.

1. Avoid fatty table scraps, fried foods, bacon, butter, and rich holiday leftovers.
2. Feed only veterinarian-approved diets and treats after a pancreatitis diagnosis.
3. Keep pets at a healthy weight with portion control and regular activity.
4. Schedule follow-up blood tests when recommended.
5. Manage diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s disease, hyperlipidemia, liver disease, and other risk factors.
6. Keep medications reviewed with your veterinarian, especially if your pet takes long-term drugs.
7. Seek veterinary care promptly for vomiting, appetite loss, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or sudden lethargy.

Transitioning to a prescription diet for pancreatitis in dogs and cats should be done gradually to ensure acceptance.

For pets with chronic pancreatitis, check-ups are often needed every few months or as recommended based on symptoms. Related care topics may include diabetes management, weight control programs, therapeutic nutrition, digestive disease monitoring, and screening for complications, all of which are part of our commitment described on the about Bushnell Animal Clinic page.

In people, complications of chronic pancreatitis can include chronic debilitating pain, diabetes, pancreatic pseudocysts, and pancreatic cancer. Pancreatic pseudocysts are usually asymptomatic but may cause serious complications in 25% to 30% of patients with pancreatitis, including rupture, infection, bleeding, and obstruction. Almost one-fourth of patients with chronic pancreatitis have osteoporosis, and nearly two-thirds have osteoporosis or osteopenia, increasing the risk of fractures and other complications. There is also a markedly increased risk of pancreatic cancer in patients with chronic pancreatitis, particularly among those with long-term alcohol use or hereditary pancreatitis. These human data do not directly predict your pet’s outcome, but they underscore why long-term pancreatic inflammation should not be ignored.

Frequently Asked Questions

Communication with your vet about the specific needs of your pet with pancreatitis in dogs and cats is vital.

Can my pet recover completely from pancreatitis?

Yes. Many dogs and cats recover well from mild to moderate pancreatitis, especially when treatment starts early. Recovery depends on severity, dehydration, complications, underlying disease, and whether the pet has acute pancreatitis or chronic pancreatitis.

Some pets have repeated flare-ups or lasting pancreatic damage. Severe cases may lead to diabetes mellitus, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, chronic digestive issues, or ongoing dietary restrictions.

What human foods should I absolutely avoid giving my pet?

Avoid high-fat foods such as bacon, sausage, fried foods, butter, gravy, fatty meat trimmings, creamy sauces, rich cheese, and holiday leftovers. Also avoid toxic foods such as chocolate, onions, garlic, grapes, raisins, alcohol, and heavily seasoned foods.

For pets with a history of pancreatitis, even small amounts of fatty food can trigger a relapse. Use only veterinarian-approved treats.

How often should pets with chronic pancreatitis have check-ups?

Many pets with chronic pancreatitis benefit from check-ups every 3 to 6 months, though some need more frequent monitoring. Your veterinarian may recommend blood tests, weight checks, diet review, medication adjustments, and screening for diabetes or exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.

Pets with recurring vomiting, weight loss, diarrhea, oily stools, appetite changes, or increased thirst should be seen sooner.

Is pancreatitis more common in certain dog breeds?

Yes. Miniature Schnauzers, Yorkshire Terriers, Cocker Spaniels, Dachshunds, Poodles, and some other breeds appear to have increased risk. Miniature Schnauzers are especially associated with hyperlipidemia.

Breed risk does not mean a pet will definitely develop pancreatitis, but it does mean diet control, weight management, and early symptom recognition are especially important.

What should I do if my pet has symptoms on weekends or after hours?

If your pet has nonstop vomiting, collapse, severe pain, bloody diarrhea, pale gums, difficulty breathing, or sudden weakness, seek emergency veterinary care immediately. These signs may indicate severe acute pancreatitis or another life-threatening problem.

If signs are mild but concerning, call for veterinary guidance. Do not give human pain medications, as many are dangerous for dogs and cats.

Will my pet need medication for life after pancreatitis?

Some pets only need short-term medication during recovery. Others with chronic pancreatitis may need longer-term nausea control, pain management, enzyme supplements, appetite support, or medication for related conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Dietary management is often the most important long-term treatment. Your veterinarian will adjust the plan based on symptoms, lab results, and quality of life.

Can stress trigger pancreatitis in pets?

Stress alone is not usually the only cause, but physiologic stress from illness, surgery, trauma, anesthesia, or major routine changes may contribute. Stress can also lead to appetite changes or dietary mistakes that worsen digestive problems.

Because pancreatitis may have multiple risk factors, prevention focuses on diet consistency, weight control, medication review, and early care when signs appear.

How do I transition my pet to a prescription diet?

Transition gradually over 5 to 7 days unless your veterinarian gives different instructions. Start with mostly the old food and a small amount of the new food, then slowly increase the prescription diet while watching for vomiting, diarrhea, or refusal to eat.

For pancreatitis-prone pets, treats must follow the same low fat diet rules. If your pet will not accept the food, contact Bushnell Animal Clinic so we can discuss alternative prescription diets or feeding strategies.